Original link: https://blog.rachelt.one/articles/in-the-core-of-changes-the-art-cries/
I recently finished reading “A Brief History of Photography” published by Guangxi Normal University Press in 2017, which included the Chinese translation of four papers written by Walter Benjamin, including “A Brief History of Photography” (1931) and “Art Works in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”. “(1936, hereinafter referred to as “Mechanical Reproduction”) is particularly valuable for reference and speculation. It made me, a non-scientific fan who purely loves electricity generation, feel that it is time to write something to finish reading this book.
Due to the limitations of the essay attributes of these two articles, the differences in translations, and the language gap, this article attempts to record the reading experience while combining art, photography, and cultural history to explain some of the more complex concepts in the book. Times plus my own thinking. Regardless of whether you have read the original work or agree with the viewpoint of this article, I hope it can bring you some inspiration.
This article is about 8,500 words, and it takes about 30 minutes to read. There are pictures of the quantum superposition state throughout the whole process, so please rest assured to eat.
Walter Benjamin
The premise of understanding a book is to understand the author, and “A Brief History of Photography” is no exception. If one sentence is used to characterize the author, Walter Benjamin (1892-1940) was a Jew and cultural theorist who belonged to the Frankfurt School and believed in Western Marxism. In this way, it can be regarded as explaining the historical background, which is enough to understand the writing intention of this book and the reasons for the formation of many ideas of the author. This section will also briefly describe some major events related to him. They are excerpted from the entry of Walter Benjamin in Stanford University Encyclopedia of Philosophy. If you are not interested, you can skip to the next paragraph directly.
Walter Benjamin was born in 1892 into a wealthy Jewish merchant family in Germany. At the age of 13, Benjamin was sent to a boarding school, where he formed an important intellectual kinship with the liberal education reformer Gustav Wyneken. On his return to Berlin, he began writing for the magazine “Beginning Der Anfang” which implemented Wyneken’s principles of youthful spiritual purity. These articles contained his ideas which were still in their infancy but which would continue until his conception matured. As a student at the Universities of Freiburg and Berlin, Benjamin attended lectures by the neo-Kantian philosopher Heinrich Rickert and sociologist Georg Simmel and continued to be active Get involved in a growing youth movement. In 1914, however, he denounced his mentor and resigned from the movement because of Wyneken’s public praise of the moral experience the outbreak of war brought to young people. In 1919, Benjamin completed his doctoral dissertation “The Concept of Art Criticism of the German Romantic School”, which was awarded the summa cum laude title of the University of Bern, Switzerland.
In 1924 he wrote a dissertation on the Italian island of Caprini, during which time he devoted himself to the study of György Lukács’s History and Class Consciousness, and in the winter of 1926-1927 he studied Latvian actors and theater directors. , a visit to Asja Lācis in Moscow, USSR, which together facilitated his Marxist turn to historical materialism. By the early 1930s, Benjamin was closely involved in a left-wing movement called Crisis and Critique, in collaboration with Ernst Bloch, Siegfried Kracauer and others. periodical, and left Nazi Germany for the last time in 1933, in exile in Paris, Ibiza, and elsewhere. During this period, the University of Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, led by Max Horkheimer and forced to move out of Germany at that time, provided Benjamin with important publishing opportunities and financial subsidies, which also influenced Benjamin’s work. Works of some time, such as Mechanical Reproduction.
When World War II broke out in 1939, Benjamin was briefly imprisoned in French “concentration camps” for German citizens. He was released a few months later; when Paris fell the following summer, he, like many displaced Jewish Germans, tried to flee France through legal or illegal immigration. Turned away by Spanish customs officials on September 27, 1940, Benjamin, in despair, took his own life in the Spanish border town of Portbou.
history of photography, history of art
When photography flourishes, art also turns a new page.
In 1839, Daguerreotype was made public and photography was born. In the second year, Claude Monet, a representative of Impressionist painters, was born in Paris, France. Before he opened the door of modern art with “Impression·Sunrise, soleil levant” (1872), and kicked the ass of those conservative painters with the heel of innovative boots, art was always tightly controlled by academic art. They tend to be idealistic, and are keen on religion, history and portraits. That’s why the pioneering landscape paintings that the Impressionists smashed on the heads of those old antiques are so controversial.
When Monet was growing up, photography gradually changed from a tool used by academic painters to assist painting, and became the main body of art. After the popularization of Daguerreotype, some conservative critics believed that photography was a blasphemy against religion and gods. In other words, photography was a real threat to traditional art. With the increasing demand for portraits of the middle class, and the small number and high cost of oil paintings, more and more small portrait painters turned to photographers, and photography became more and more popular.
The vigorous development of photography is inevitably related to the rapid progress of photography technology. In the decades since the Daguerreotype was born, it has undergone a series of improvements. In 1884, George Eastman invented film, eliminating the need for photographers to carry chemicals. In 1888, he made a slogan of lowering the threshold of photography and launched the Kodak camera we know today. Then in 1901 The Kodak Brownie camera that went on the market really brought photography into the homes of ordinary people and became the familiar appearance of the public today.
Photography as a documentary method began in the middle of the nineteenth century, after a series of photos about the Crimean War (1853-1856) and the reconstruction of the Crystal Palace were born. Other contemporary photographers, such as Robert Turnbull Macpherson, used photography as a more precise means of documenting landscapes and architecture than engraving or lithographs. Another pioneer of documentary photography that I have to mention, Benjamin introduced it in a large section in “A Little History of Photography” and even compared it to Eugène Atget of Busoni in the photography world. He started photography in 1890 and took pictures A series of images recording the street scene in Paris before modernization, the picture below is “Scenery of Pigalle Street at Six in the Morning” taken by him in 1925, which may seem like an ordinary street sweeper today, but it was unique in that era sex. Benjamin said that Atre’s contribution lies in “the liberation of physical objects from the “aura””, which involves an important concept in Benjamin’s thought: “aura”, which is not listed here, and will be analyzed in detail later .
Compared with documentary photography, portrait photography seems to be “self-styled”. After all, the techniques and themes in this aspect are relatively fixed, but this field is not static. For example, August Sander, a well-known realist photographer, has transformed the subject of portrait photography from the middle class “extraordinarily” to working people from all walks of life, such as the “Man and Machine” pictured below. To quote the original text, “Starting from the farmer, who is rooted in the land, Sander guides the observer through all classes and occupations, from the highest example of civilization to the mentally retarded”, thus “the face of a person is instantly in the photograph. revealed a new, immeasurable meaning”.
Another field with similar changes: film, was written by Benjamin, and even became the subject of a full text in “Mechanical Reproduction”. The purpose of the birth of early continuous photography was to do research on the actions of people or animals, and the continuous playback of these photos became a “movie”; although it is difficult to determine when the film was born, the first successful commercial screening was undoubtedly in December 1895 Public Screening of Lumière Brothers in Paris on 28th. After that, the film industry also developed rapidly. At the end of the 19th century, the film industry gave up one shot to the end and used multiple shots to form a complete film. The film changed from a simple short film with weak or almost no narrative to a beginning A film that uses lens language and has a narrative function.
The focus of Benjamin’s attention, that is, the “people” are also increasingly active in front of the camera, especially in the Soviet Union. He said that “the revolution has been partially completed” because the people no longer play another role in the film, but themselves. At the same time, movies were in a period of eruption, and most of the movies of that era did not even leave a brief plot, but what is certain is that the Soviet Union had dramas like Infinite Sorrow in 1922, and the United States also had documentaries like Nanook of the North in the same year. . Whether this conclusion is true, you have to ask the Europeans of that era.
Modern art was not left behind during this period either. The Impressionists broke the high wall of the academic school that isolated artists from the world, and turned the delicate painting process that was originally done indoors into outdoor painting that faced the subject matter, turning classical works that are meticulous and need to be read carefully, It has become a painting of the modern enlightened bourgeoisie that “experiences rather than looks”, conveys emotions straightforwardly. In 1874, the Impressionists gathered in Paris for the exhibition that made them famous. Then Vincent van Gogh and Post-Impressionism and Expressionism, Pablo Picasso and Cubism, art has gradually changed from content as the main body to a carrier of the creator’s soul. Photography and art are no longer in conflict. As Benjamin said, “To us today, this debate seems to be answering the wrong question, and the basis of this debate is a mess.”
In addition, Benjamin also mentioned two important schools of creation: Dadaism (1916-1923) and Surrealism (1924-1945). The former originated from World War I. The artists who were shocked by the cruelty of the war were angry with reality, conservatism and war. “They advertised themselves as art delinquents and opposed everything: anti-authority, anti-society, anti-religion, especially anti-art.” . They are unmistakably childlike, creating fragmented pieces like Marcel Duchamp’s Smell Beautiful below, which affixes a homemade fake label to an empty perfume bottle, complemented by Man Ray’s photographs, A photo of a glamorous Rrose Selavy, neither the promised scent nor the brand exists, to critique materialism, vanity, religion and art, against the false and articulate traditional artwork celebrating the fragmented realistic behavior.
Dadaism eventually failed. Dadaism, which originated from conflicts, needs conflicts to maintain, and the art world with the development of the bourgeoisie and the gradual stabilization of society has lost the necessity of conflicts. The artists are still determined, still rebellious, but things are starting to get subtler. André Breton, as a staunch supporter of Dadaism, sought an artistic expression that would infuse Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory into the Dadaist model, so He then announced the birth of Surrealism in the First Manifesto of Surrealism (1924). This doctrine covers a variety of forms, and its spirit has been passed down to this day. Just like we would not describe a modern artwork as “Dadaism”, or a modern artist as “Fauvism”, but we often say they are “surrealism”. “Same. Atge, mentioned above, was also characterized by Benjamin, and became a photographer who pioneered surrealist photography.
Finally, we have a little understanding of the history of photography and art history, and now we can talk about some of Benjamin’s thoughts.
“Aura”
“Aura” is an absolutely important keyword that runs through these two papers of Benjamin. He has a perceptual and vague definition of this concept. This article will try to give a little bit of my personal interpretation.
The first mention of “aura” is Benjamin’s description of an ancient photographic technique. In the early days of photography, due to unstable photosensitive materials and long exposure times, there were always “light slowly struggling out of the shadows” in the dark places of photos, such as this portrait taken in 1839 or 1840 , the dark part of the photo is not completely black, but presents some irregular white, like something glowing in the dark:
At the same time, due to the sense of ritual brought about by the longer exposure time and the higher social status of the subject, “Aura”, as a representative of early photography, was also labeled as “artistic perfection” and “noble taste”. Label. The “spiritual light” described by Benjamin and imitated by photographers since 1880 is not only this kind of light effect, but also the “artistic perfection” and “artistic perfection” that photographers pursued when photography developed to a more stable and rapid stage. Noble taste”. As a result, the word “aura” has changed from its original meaning to a symbol of “artistic perfection” and “noble taste”, or a similar sense of distance and ritual.
This symbolism also appears in the description of Atge in “A Little History of Photography”. Benjamin said that Atge liberated physical objects from the “aura”. Combining the history of photography and art history mentioned above, presumably this “liberation” is not only Atge’s bringing photography closer to the corners of real life , In addition to the sense of ritual of photography, it also has the meaning similar to that of Impressionist painters who broke the high wall and brought art to more people. Benjamin also clearly pointed out this point in a certain sense, as stated in the fourth section of “Mechanical Reproduction”, “Once a work of art no longer has any ritual function, it has to lose its “aura””.
From this perspective, it is not difficult to understand the “aura” he described after leaving photography. For example, the original sentence: “Removing the “aura” from the photo is just like the bourgeoisie who advocate imperialism expel the “aura” from reality”. It can be known from the definition that it narrowly refers to “capitalism after monopoly replaces free competition” in the Chinese context. It typically shows that a powerful country expands its influence in weaker countries or regions through colonization and other means. Therefore, combined with the definition of “Aura”, the “Aura” expelled by imperialism should be the supposedly sacred and inviolable sovereignty or the right of national self-determination of weaker countries.
Thanks to the interpretation of “A Brief History of Photography”, we can now look at “Mechanical Reproduction” with “aura”. In the first half of the full text, Benjamin quoted a large number of “Little History of Photography” to explain “the transformation we are currently facing… as the decline of “spiritual light””, combined with what he said The increasing importance of the masses in today’s life , followed by an explanation of social conditions: “It has become an increasingly urgent need to “draw things closer” to oneself in space more humanely…by welcoming duplicates of things…to grasp the uniqueness of things… From the description of the artistic changes in the same period, it is not difficult to speculate that the “aura” here is still a symbol of a sense of distance and ritual. After the masses of the people or the proletariat have the right to speak, they need to create their own art. This kind of art of the people is naturally also the decline of the “aura”.
In addition, when Benjamin described the film, he also mentioned that for the first time, this form allows people to become art itself, “Man acts with his whole living self, but he no longer has the “aura””. He compared the film with the theater, saying that the “aura” of the characters is inseparable from the “aura” of the actors, and the “aura” only appears “here and now” and cannot be reproduced. Therefore, when the camera replaces the audience, this This “spiritual light” naturally disappeared. But why? If you substitute the definition of “spiritual light”, you can find that, unlike movies, drama has more sense of distance and ritual. In drama, actors use props to substitute into the script over and over again. What the audience sees is a one-time, untouchable performance. And there must be subtle differences between performances every time, which is the non-reproducibility of drama; although there are props and scripts in movies, movies, especially early movies, will simply record the entire process, which can be paused, rewound and played. replay, and is itself a replica of what the camera sees. When the uniqueness is broken, especially today everyone can watch movies in a way that they feel comfortable with, the “aura” will naturally dissipate.
But Benjamin also said that one can “grasp the uniqueness of things by welcoming their duplicates.” This is why?
From replicas to uniqueness
Compared with “Aura”, Benjamin’s discussion of replicas and uniqueness in “Mechanical Reproduction” is sufficient and detailed, and even the title of the full text has laid the foundation for the discussion. That being the case, let’s start with the title “Artwork in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” and see if we can get some inspiration from the disassembly.
It is not difficult to find that the title focuses on “The Age of Mechanical Replication”, or even further, “Mechanical Replication”. Why the emphasis on this word? We might as well look at traditional works of art first. Although there have been counterfeit works of art since ancient times, but also since ancient times, counterfeit goods have never been qualified to coexist with works of art. Scientists and collectors have tried every means to identify the authenticity of works of art, just to ensure the authority of works of art, Uniqueness guarantees the “aura” of artworks. Art works obtained by “mechanical reproduction” methods such as photography and audio recording do not have this pursuit. For example, the same photo can be printed into a super-large poster, or it can be a small head embedded in a pocket watch, and of course it can be a Picture files can be viewed on mobile phones, computers and TVs. No one will think that only the printed posters are works of art, but the ones on the mobile phone are not. However, there is only one unique “Impression·Sunrise” in the world, just like only the 120 refractory bricks bought by the Tate Museum in London can be called “Equivalent 8Equivalent VIII”, placing 120 refractory bricks at home will only It makes people feel that the owner of this house lives casually and carelessly.
According to Mechanical Reproduction, there are two reasons for this phenomenon: on the one hand, “the mechanical copy is less dependent on the original”, and on the other hand, “mechanical technology can transport the copy to places where the original may never reach”. Take my favorite movie in the full text, or my recent most sour “Synesthesia: Silly Night Secret Letter” as an example: Those exaggerated camera language constitute the former aspect, and the live audience can never spin and jump like a camera in a concert venue. Closer and farther away; the feature that can be played anywhere constitutes the latter aspect. Not everyone has the opportunity to visit the scene in person, but everyone can have a glimpse of the charm of the scene through the video after the recording is played. That is to say, who knows? There is a small-minded manufacturer in the mobile phone. The game concert is only held in Shanghai. I am really envious. .
This is the part that meets reproducible art. Let us go back to the question in the previous part: now that there are copies of things, the uniqueness has been broken, so what about “mastering the uniqueness of things”?
To answer this question, we first need to define the value of a work of art. Among the many evaluation dimensions, two dimensions are mutually polar and particularly prominent, namely “worship ritual value” and “exhibition value”. Animals and humans painted on stone walls in the Stone Age are the extreme of the former. Of course, these murals have value for appreciation, but they are more for ritual purposes; The academic art of the value or worship ritual value has become a modern art with an absolute advantage in the exhibition value, or in other words, it is leaning towards the direction of “experience”. Benjamin believed that photography and similar reproduction technologies greatly enhanced the exhibition value of artworks, and then quantitative changes led to qualitative changes, and the balance of art tilted. Now that the value of the exhibition has become the focus, whether it is a replica is no longer important. A replica that can reflect the value of the exhibition can also give the audience a sense of experience.
Similar to the decline of “spiritual light”, after the people have the right to speak, they urgently need to own things “within the possible distance”. The best form of this “possession” is naturally mechanical reproductions such as videos and records. In this way, the masses can grasp the experience of things. To sum up, art has become a sense of experience that the masses can grasp through reproductions—Benjamin said that this is the characteristic of the “sensitivity” of the new era, and that it can “grasp the only existing things through reproductions”, which is also true. It illustrates the uniqueness of a work of art that can be grasped through reproduction.
politicize art
At the end of the epilogue of “Mechanical Reproduction”, Benjamin left an endless sentence: “Communism’s response is to politicize art.”
This sentence is really puzzling to read. How is art politicized? Why can this sentence be the end of the whole text? Before answering the question, it is advisable to sort out this conclusion first.
At the beginning of the epilogue, Benjamin mentioned that the rise of the proletariat posed a threat to the bourgeoisie. Fascists tried to organize the proletariat while protecting the interests of the bourgeoisie. Therefore, they “only gave the people the opportunity to express themselves without giving them due have rights”, “only try to give them the opportunity to express and retain their assets”. Combined with the following “all efforts to aestheticize politics have climbed to a climax: war”, we can see that fascists submerge the people in fanatical personality cults, and then they beautify war, because war can use all the resources of the masses and can become the most massive. to lull the masses into forgetting about class struggle, or to channel the pent-up anger of a life of exploitation.
What is “aestheticizing politics”? In my opinion, it should have two meanings. On the one hand, this is tantamount to imposing a “spirit” on politics, creating a sense of distance from above, just like when the art world was still ruled by conservatives, artists were locked within high walls, and fascists tried to pass This “aura” prevents the population from participating in political life. On the other hand, the political aestheticization of fascists leads to war. As stated in the last paragraph of the epilogue, “What fascism hopes to obtain from war is artistic satisfaction, that is, the satisfaction of sensory experience changed by technology. “, here is a quote from the original text:
Yet Marinetti, in his manifesto on the war in the Ethiopian colony, made it clear: “For twenty-seven years we futurists have risen against the notion that ‘war is anti-aesthetic’. […] This is why [ …] War is beautiful, we so affirm: war is beautiful because, with gas masks, loudspeakers, flamethrowers, little tanks, war bases the absolute supremacy of man’s power on subdued machines; war is beautiful Yes, because for the first time in history, it has fulfilled the dream of human beings to have a body made of steel; war is beautiful, because it is dotted on the grassland everywhere with the flames of machine guns, like orchids; war is beautiful, because it gathers The smells and aromas of gunfire, bombardment, cease-fire, disintegration, intertwined into a symphony; war is beautiful because it creates all kinds of new buildings, such as large tanks, geometric air squadrons, and towers rising from burning villages. Spiral smoke, and others […]. Futurist writers and artists, […] Remember these basic principles of the aesthetics of war, so that your struggle to create new poetry, new sculpture may be illuminated! “
At the same time, at the end, Benjamin once again criticized war: “Today people perform for themselves, and they have become very alienated, so strange that they can experience their own destruction, and use their own destruction as a first-class aesthetic pleasure. . This is the aestheticization of the political operation of fascism.”
Looking down with this understanding, there is only one sentence left in the full text, and the whole book seems to only say this sentence: “Communism’s response is to politicize art.”
In fact, “politicizing art” and “aestheticizing politics” may be just the opposite. Looking back at the whole book, it is not difficult to find that the rise of the proletariat echoes the transformation of artistic creation, especially photography. Therefore, as Benjamin said from the beginning to the end, after the proletariat took over political power and the “aura” of art was broken, the masses needed art that belonged to the masses, and the masses created art that belonged to the masses. The development of photography has provided the tools for this transformation, and everyone can be an artistic creator or subject of artistic creation. This is “politicizing art”.
When will the next change come
In this way, we have a general understanding of the whole book “A Brief History of Photography”. With his unique brushstrokes, Benjamin described the changes in photography under new ideas, new technologies, and new trends, and finally conveyed the new trends of thought in that era Raise your arms and shout communism is good , while clearly opposing fascism.
In the writing of this article, I consulted a large number of materials and documents, and studied several translations of the same book by Benjamin in different languages, in an attempt to deconstruct the core ideas of the book magnificently. However, it is obvious that when I try to “deconstruct” the “core idea”, my futility is taken for granted. In fact, after spending so much energy, I found that the author’s thinking has not changed from the beginning to the end. His praise of the proletariat and communism has been carried out from the first page of the book to the last page. If you read with this premise in mind, even if the “Little History of Photography” does describe the history of photography, it still seems one-sided and deliberate to readers, as if everything is for the sake of expressing ideas, or is not concealed. Think hard.
But this is not what I want. If all words express the same thought, what is the point of different words? If a book can be summed up in one sentence, then what is the purpose of my careful study of this book?
I don’t know, so I read. I read from the history of art to the history of philosophy, from the Frankfurt School to metaphysics, and then returned to chew Benjamin’s words carefully.
In the end, I found that in fact, every era has a mainstream, and everyone in the mainstream has their own thoughts. Understanding this person’s thoughts really helps to set the tone for this person’s creation, and it can also be faster. Familiar with its creation, but this is always a preconception. And in fact, what is really important is not only the thought, but how the times and personal experiences shape the thought, how the individual implements the thought, and most importantly, the work itself created with the help of the thought. Reading “A Little History of Photography” is not just for me to read the author’s personal ideology, it must also have the ontological content of “A Little History of Photography” as the name states. Reading it can make me understand Sander, Art Waiting for a photographer whom I know very little about, I learned about the era when photography was born. In my opinion, only a creation that has both content and soul can be called a creation. For example, the urinal placed in the Grand Palace Hotel in the middle of Lexington Avenue and signed R. Mutt 1917 is not only famous because it is a urinal; Nor would he redefine modern art with Fountain.
And now, we seem to be able to smell a little change. Since last year, generative AI has reshaped our understanding of artificial intelligence at a rapid rate, as if yesterday artificial intelligence would only find me out of the vast sea of people, or have a so-called dialogue with me that does not match the preface and the afterword Today, artificial intelligence has been placed on emotional and physical appeals, and even has more empathy than many humans. Where should art go today when AI can write, draw and even spit out photographs?
Like every ordinary person standing at the intersection of the times, my answer is “I don’t know”. I admire the skills of AI, but I don’t think these creations contain AI’s own ideas, so it is difficult for me to define them as creations. AI does not take the initiative to write, let alone take pictures. It is a black box from input to output. After rolling the dice to determine an initial value, it uses advanced probability theory and statistics all the way from this initial value; it is just a model. A set of algorithms that are constantly iterated and finally frozen at a certain moment can only obtain the ability to play themselves from the context. But on the other hand, no one knows what the future of AI will look like, and no one knows what the future of creation will look like. Maybe AI is just a creative tool after all, just like a photographer’s camera; or maybe just like I wrote these seemingly contradictory nonsense, in the future AI will also mutter and classify me as a conservative who will be shot tomorrow activists, and then arranged for a few prison guard robots to put me on the execution ground that belonged to the old era.
Who knows. The next change may be tomorrow, and there may already be an AI ready to use its urinal to destroy the “aura” of another group of conservatives; it may also be a long time later, when this article has long been forgotten in the corner of history, But it can still be turned out by an AI, as part of the training set of the new human being composed of the creations of the old human beings.
Even so, I still believe that art is defined by everyone. The wonder of art does not lie in its heavy historical significance or the ideological value attached by anyone. On the contrary, everyone has their own interpretation of the wonder of art. , Everyone has their own Atge and Sander, and everyone can have different interpretations from me, just like everyone’s reality is only what can be perceived by everyone. Benjamin, who once stood at the center of the times, called out to the people, and now I, who is standing at the center of the times, call out to everyone: Even though the ontology of creation is ever-changing, as long as we are still thinking, the core of creation is still beating.
Reference and Further Reading
A Brief History of Photography / [Germany] Walter Benjamin; Xu Qiling, Lin Zhiming translation / Guangxi Normal University Press, 2017
“150 Years of Modern Art: An Unfinished Story” / [English] Will Gomperz; Wang Shuo, Wang Tongle translation / Guangxi Normal University Press, 2017
Walter Benjamin – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
History of photography – Wikipedia
History of film – Wikipedia
List of Soviet films – Wikipedia
List of American films – Wikipedia
This article is transferred from: https://blog.rachelt.one/articles/in-the-core-of-changes-the-art-cries/
This site is only for collection, and the copyright belongs to the original author.